Home – Home – Jornals – Atmospheric and Oceanic Optics 2016 number 10

The Pacific coast, including the Kamchatka Peninsula, the Kuriles, the Sea of Japan, the Sea of Okhotsk, and the Bering Sea, is the main tsunami-prone area in Russia. The Far East tsunamis are much more frequent, extensive, and devastating than those in the Black, Caspian, Baltic, and White Sea coasts, as well as in major inland lakes Baikal, Ladoga, etc. The tsunami catalog of the Russian Far East from 1737 to present lists 110 events with mainly near-field and few far-field sources (105 and 5 events, respectively). Most of the catalogued tsunamis (95 cases) were induced by earthquakes, and few events had volcanic (3), landsliding (2), meteorological (3), and unknown (2) triggers. Altogether there were eleven devastating tsunamis for the period of observations, with >10 m heights, two of which were great events in 1737 and 1952, when the waves exceeded 20 m. The wave heights were in the range 2.5-10 m in fifteen hazardous tsunami events and within the tidal range (~1-2 m) in thirteen cases; the other events were small and detectable only instrumentally. Thus, the average recurrence times for tsunamis of different magnitudes in the Russian Pacific coast are 25 years for devastating events and 10-15 years for hazardous tsunamis; small tsunamis occur almost every year, according to statistics for the last sixty years collected at the regional network of tide stations. The topics discussed in the paper concern the completeness and reliability of the Far East catalog; distribution of tsunami events in space and time; correlation between the intensity of tsunami and the magnitude of the causative undersea earthquake; tsunami recurrence; tsunami warning; and long-term hazard assessment and mapping.

The Mondy strike-slip fault connects the W-E Tunka and N-S Hovsgöl basins on the southern flank of the Baikal rift system. Ground penetrating radar (GPR) surveys in its damage zone provide constraints on the thicknesses, dips, and plunges of fault planes, as well as on the amount and sense of vertical slip. Strike-slip faulting in the southern segment of the Mondy fault within the territory of Russia bears a normal slip component of motion along the W-E and NW planes. These motions have produced negative flower structures in shallow crust, appearing as grabens upon Pleistocene fluvioglacial terraces. The amount of normal slip estimated from the displacement of reflection events varies over the area and reaches a maximum of 3.4 m near Mondy Village. In the Kharadaban basin link, left-lateral strike slip displaces valleys of ephemeral streams to 22 m, while normal slip detected by GPR reaches 2.2 m; this normal-to-strike slip ratio corresponds to a direction of ~6° to the horizon. The angles of dips of faults are in the range 75-79°; the thicknesses of fault planes marked by low- or high-frequency anomalies in GPR records vary from 2.5 to 17.0 m along strike and decrease with depth within a few meters below the surface, which is common to near-surface coseismic motions. Many ruptures fail to reach the surface but appear rather as sinkholes localized mainly in fault hanging walls. The deformation style in the damage zone of the Mondy fault bears impact of the NW Yaminshin fault lying between its two segments. According to photoelasticity, the stress field changes locally at the intersection of the two faults, under NE compression at 38°, till the inverse orientations of principal compression and extension stresses. This stress pattern leads to a combination of normal and left-lateral strike slip components.

The available seismic and magnetic data show the Gakkel Ridge rift zone consisting of the Atlantic and Siberian segments divided by a tectonic suture at 70º E. The two segments have had different histories recorded in their sedimentary cover. Apart from the difference in its morphology, the Siberian segment differs from the Atlantic one in the existence of a series of deposition centers, which might represent a vast Paleogenic basin that formed prior to the Gakkel Ridge. The simple model of North Atlantic spreading fails to explain the long and complex history of the Gakkel Ridge rift and the existence of the depocenters. The particular structure of this zone might have resulted from the growth of rift mountains by accretion of magmatic material during the Paleogene, without significant sea floor spreading.

We present results of isotope-geochemical study of the Ermakovka F-Be deposit, including data on the oxygen and carbon isotope compositions in dolomite and calcite marbles and in carbonates accompanying skarns, of early and late stages of ore formation and of post-ore parageneses. To elucidate the sources of fluids participated in the ore formation, we calculated the oxygen isotope composition in water and the hydrogen isotope composition in hydroxyl-containing minerals. Phlogopite in marbleized dolomites, vesuvianite and amphibole in skarns, eudidimite and bertrandite in ore parageneses, and bavenite formed during post-ore processes are analyzed. Most of the ore-stage minerals are depleted in heavy oxygen. Their δ18O values are lower than 5-6‰ (SMOW). Oxygen in carbonate minerals of the initial stage (dolomite and bastnaesite) is heavier (1.3-4.9‰) than that in calcite (+2.0 to -3.7‰). The δ18O values of water in equilibrium both with carbonate and with silicate minerals (-4 to -14‰) suggest the contribution of meteoric water to the mineral formation. A magmatic fluid (δ18O from +6 to +9‰) participated in the skarn formation at the initial stage, and a meteoric fluid, (δ18O from -1 to -9‰) at the final stage. A meteoric source is confirmed by the depleted hydrogen isotope composition in combined water in minerals (δD from -119 to -192‰).

The olivine shonkinites localized among dunites and alkali gabbroids in the northern part of the alkaline ultrabasic Inagli massif (northwestern part of Central Aldan) have been studied. The obtained data on the chemical and trace-element compositions of the rocks and minerals and the results of melt inclusion study showed that the olivine shonkinites crystallized from alkaline basanite melt enriched in Cl, S, CO2, and trace elements. Clinopyroxene crystallized at 1180-1200 ºC from a homogeneous silicate-salt melt, which was probably separated into immiscible silicate and carbonate-salt fractions with temperature decreasing. The composition of the silicate fraction evolved from alkaline basanite to alkaline trachyte. The carbonate-salt fraction had an alkaline carbonate composition and was enriched in S and Cl. The same trend of evolution of clinopyroxene-hosted melts and the igneous rocks of the Inagli massif suggests that the alkali gabbroids, melanocratic alkali syenites, and pulaskites formed from the same magma, which had a near-alkaline basanite composition during its crystallization differentiation. The geochemical studies showed that the olivine shonkinites and glasses of homogenized melt inclusions in clinopyroxene grains have similar contents of trace elements, one or two orders of magnitude higher than those in the primitive mantle. The high contents of LILE (K, Rb, and Sr) and LREE in the olivine shoshonites and homogenized inclusions suggest the enriched mantle source, and the negative anomalies of HFSE and Ti are a specific feature of igneous rocks formed with the participation of crustal material. The slight depletion in HREE relative to LREE and the high (La/Yb) n ratios in the rocks and inclusion glasses (10.0-11.4 and 4.7-6.2, respectively) suggest the presence of garnet in the mantle source.

This study reviews a possible new position of the base of the Quaternary in West Siberia based on paleobotanical and paleomagnetic data in view of ratification of ICS recommendations by the IUGS Executive Committee and the decision of the Interdepartmental Commission on the Quaternary Stratigraphy of Russia to lower the base of the Quaternary (and, therefore, the base of the Pleistocene) at 2.58 Ma. The paleobotanical and paleomagnetic data from two horizons on the West Siberian Plain (Kulunda, attributed in part to the formerly Neogene Gelasian Stage, and Kochki, attributed to the Quaternary) were used to identify global cooling that occurred synchronously with a regional cooling phase determined at the base of the Gelasian at Monte San Nicola, Italy.

We studied the upper 0-1000 mm of the bottom sediment core from the underwater Sofia Lepneva Ridge of Lake Teletskoye. The core sediments accumulated with a rate of 0.3 mm/year (with regard to their humidity, with a rate of 0.45 mm/year) and have an age of about 2000 years. A total of 194 species (212 varieties and forms) of diatoms have been revealed. Analysis of diatom composition in tanatocoenoses showed prevalence of species inhabiting the bottom and periphyton, widely distributed geographically, indifferent to salinity, and preferring a weakly alkaline environment, as well as beta-mesosaprobionts. The number of diatom valves ranged from 0.86 to 64.4 mln valves/g, with an average of 22.90 ± 0.78 mln valves/g. Over the last millennium, the peaks of the abundance of diatoms, especially representatives of the cold-water assemblage,including the main dominant Aulacoseira subarctica (O. Müll.) Haw., are referred to the periods with low water temperature. The pH value for the period from 172 BC to 2006 AD has been reconstructed from the proportion of the numbers of valves of pH-indicating diatom species, which varied from 7.51 to 7.69, with an average of 7.580 ± 0.003. The pH value predicted up to 2259 AD was estimated by spectral (Fourier) analysis at 7.53-7.63, with a similar average of 7.580 ± 0.001. Analysis of reconstructed and predicted pH values showed their insignificant changes and correspondence to a weakly alkaline environment (7.0-8.5). These pH values suggest stability of the lake environment both in the past periods and in the nearest future.

The results of study of geochemistry of the Neoproterozoic and Lower Cambrian deposits within the Berezovka depression are presented. A mudstone member of the Seralakh Formation is assumed to be an oil source bed. We compiled a series of geochemical maps for this formation and estimated the hydrocarbon generation potential and the scales of oil and gas formation in its mudstone member, using the volumetric-genetic method. The migrated liquid hydrocarbons amount to about 8 billion tons.

The study presents assessment of the hydrocarbon potential of almost all known sedimentary basins of the African continent and adjacent offshore coastal areas of the Mediterranean Sea and the Indian and Atlantic Oceans. The assessment is based on new data that became available following the well-known monograph of V.I. Vysotsky et al. (1994), which provided the last petroleum potential assessment published in the Russian literature. These data provide a more accurate evaluation of the regional initially-in-place and recoverable hydrocarbon resources, exploration maturity as of the beginning of 2015, the total number of discovered oil and gas fields, and field/resources distribution by basin type and offshore and onshore areas.

A new approach to interpretation of shallow electrical resistivity tomography (ERT) data discussed for the case of the Olkhon area (western Baikal region) stems from tectonophysical ideas of faulting phases and deformation levels in rocks. The deformation levels, identified statistically from ERT responses, constrain fault boundaries and subboundaries associated with the formation of main and subsidiary fault planes. Information of this kind creates a basis for solving various fundamental and applied problems of tectonics, mineral exploration, and engineering geology.

The formation of the relief of fault zones is considered in relation to the evolution of their internal structure during faulting. The study was carried out by analog modeling with subsequent digital elevation modeling of the experimental surface of the deformed sample. The vertical displacement gradient was calculated based on the digital elevation models. It has been found that the relief of strike-slip and extensional fault zones depends on their internal structure. Each element of the internal structure makes its own contribution to the relief formation. The process depends on experimental conditions, such as the viscosity of model material and the model deformation rates. The relief of the fault zone is different at each of three main stages of its formation.

The paper deals with the physical fundamentals of the phase geoelectric method of induced polarization (IP) based on the extraction of information from the natural electromagnetic field of the Earth (NEMFE) in the frequency range 0.1-20.0 Hz. Scientific and technical justification is provided for the differential measurement circuit parameters of the NEMFE and the algorithm of processing of the received signals with the calculation of the IP coefficient, assuming the identity of the field characteristics in two receiving lines. The method consists in recording random noise signals from two adjacent receiving electrical dipoles with simultaneous memorizing of the amplitudes and their automatic equalization. Then the difference between the signals is calculated, with subsequent energy normalization. The presented theoretical fundamentals for the calculation of the IP coefficient of the NEMFE and the processing algorithm were tested in laboratory experiments. Under the assumption of the complete identity of the medium beneath the receiving dipoles, the IP coefficient was 0.01-0.03, due to the error in the elemental base of the analog input path. The paper also presents the results of field experiments on the Samson iron deposit in the Republic of Khakassia. The experimental work confirmed the effect of IP on the NEMFE in the anomalous area and showed that the results are consistent with theoretical and laboratory predictions and the data obtained using a KEP-M pulse system. It is concluded that this method can be used to detect productive anomalies and has an advantage of eliminating artificial sources of excitation of geologic sections.

Further development of the asymptotic line wing theory is presented where the long-wave approximation for the molecular centers of mass is violated. This provides long molecular trajectories going far beyond an elementary volume in the case of the nonresonance light absorption. The occurrence of long trajectories is evidence of a certain degree of ordering of molecular chaos. The latter can be described by means of a modified semiclassical representation method to establish correlation between displacement and velocity operators. An expression for the absorption coefficient is derived that allows an ambiguity concerning the estimation of the parameters of the potentials to be avoided and the temperature dependence of the absorption coefficient in line wings to be described. The calculations under consideration employ a diffusion model for H₂O absorption in the 3-5 mm window region and for CO₂ absorption in the 4.3 mm band wing to describe the temperature dependence of the absorption coefficient. It is shown that long molecular trajectories significant for the 8-12 and 3-5 mm H₂O window regions can hardly play a role in the 4.3 mm CO₂ band wing.

D₂О absorption spectrum were recorded between 10000 and 11400 cm^-1 by a Fourier transform spectrometer with a spectral resolution of 0.05 cm^-1. A multipass White’s-type cell was used for spectrum measurements, the optical path length was 40 m. A light emitting diode, which provides more brightness in comparison with other radiation sources, was used as a radiation source. Signal to noise ratios of 10⁴ was obtained. During the D₂О spectrum treatment, the experimental line list contained about 100 lines of the n₁ + 3n₃ band was created. Spectroscopic parameters (line positions, intensities, and half widths) were obtained by fitting experimental data to the Voigt line profiles with using least squares method. The analysis of the spectrum allowed us to derive new energy levels belonging to rovibrational state (103).

The absorption spectra of water vapor perturbed by Ar pressure have been investigated in the wavenumber range 6700-7650 cm^-1. Room temperature spectra of water vapor have been measured by the Bruker IFS 125HR Fourier transform spectrometer with a high signal-to-noise ratio in a wide range of pressure of argon with a spectral resolution of 0.01 cm^-1. The fittings with Voigt and speed-dependent Voigt profiles were performed to retrieve the H₂O spectral lines parameters. It was shown that the use of the speed-dependent Voigt profile gives the best agreement with experimental data.

Theoretical broadening coefficients of rotation vibration water vapor lines induced by hydrogen pressure are given. The averaged frequency method has been used to calculate line widths. Calculations have been performed for a wide interval of rotational quantum numbers in the spectral region from 500 to 10 000 cm^-1. Line widths have been computed by the averaged frequency method for rotation quantum number J from 0 to 20, data have been obtained by interpolation of J- dependence for J from 20 to 50. Temperature exponents for line widths have been defined.

Absorption spectrum of carbon oxide confined in nanopores of hybrid SiO₂/Al₂O₃ xerogel has been recorded for the first time. Half-width values of spectral lines was obtained, their dependence on quantum numbers was considered and compared with the data available in literature.

Nowdays every serious attempt to justify scientific realism is obliged to somehow manage van Fraassen’s employment of evolutionary epistemology against the important realistic «no-miracles argument». Thus a systematic translation of arguments pro et contra sufficiency of natural selection for evolutionary progress into epistemological language is needed. The main thesis of this paper is that it is difficult and maybe even impossible to reconcile scientific realism with classic evolutionary epistemology based on selectionist models.

The article deals with problems of semantics for the substitutional quantification in contrast with objectual quantification, and related ontological commitments of theories. Three difficulties with the substitution quantification is considered, namely, the argument about the lack of names, the argument about the redundancy of numeric characters, the argument of the unnamed objects. It is shown that the Geach- Lavine semantics is quite satisfactory for establishing the equivalence of two interpretations.

In the deductive - nomological formalization of Hempel the explanations of studied phenomena are grounded on the laws of nature, but understanding of phenomena is connected with obtaining explanations. In contemporary philosophy of science researchers believe that the explanation of phenomena under study is based on using the models of the theory which is intelligible to the users of this theory. The application of a lot of formal theories and their models is not a simple task, since the formal techniques are intended for studying abstract mathematical objects rather than real data. Hence, formulating the conditions under which formal theories and their models can be correctly applied for the analysis of real phenomena and real data becomes topical. The article presents a formulation of some conditions of applying the probability theory and the parametric statistical analysis on the basis of the notion introduced by the author - the base property of the objects of mathematical theory.

The article deals with essential changes in experiment taking place in the second half of twentieth century, when it becomes post-non-classical. Two such distinctive feature of experiment in post-non-classical science as computerization and kosmization are examined. The comparative analysis of natural and computer experiments is offered, the author finds out their interrelation and cognitive functions. The analysis of changes in object, the subject, technology and means of experimental activity which are related to its kosmization is undertaken.

The paper deals with the aspect of the crisis of knowledge which shows a profound exhaustion of classical ideas of objective truth. This aspect of the crisis is the result of both intentional and irreflexive passion of the so called non-classical forms rationality, speculative theoretical-cognitive concepts and hidden [latent] forms of anti-scientism and irrationalism. We analyze typical tricks used to legitimate nonsense and pseudo-scientific texts, those are the appeal to Godel theorem, quantum mechanics and fuzzy logic, an incorrect use of results obtained in synergetics and culture anthropology, redtaping texts, the abuse of etymological reduction and the approach employed in linguo-cultural studies.

The ideas of A. L. Chizhevsky and E. Shredinger about the origin and development of life laid the Foundation for the formation of the modern scientific picture in the framework of this question. The development of the problems at the interface of natural science and philosophical trends allows us to consider the study basis in the context of current theories of metaphysics, and also admits the possibility of the universalization of dynamic processes of the cosmos and of the living cell.

The article proves the conclusion that the anthropic principle does not arise from an analysis of processes taking place in nature and that is why it cannot explain the specific character of our Universe by itself. Moreover, in the context of the idea that there exists a multitude of universes it becomes “empty”, for each universe, including our one, is so what it is because of natural processes which form it, but not as a result of the anthropic principle effect.

In the first two articles of a series of studies dedicated to ancient meteorology (Filosofiya nauki, 68-69 [2016]) I discussed the method and content of Pseudo-Theophrastus’ On weather signs, translated a short treatise On the location and names of the winds, traditionally included in the Corpus Aristotelicum, and discussed various theories, designed in Antiquity for explanation of the origin and development of winds and hurricanes. In this article, based on Aristotle’s Meteorology, the Meteorology of Theophrastus in Syriac and Arabic Translation and Seneca's Naturales Questiones, I approach various ancient theories of thunderstorms, rain, smog, hail, etc., and, in the second part of the article, these of comets, meteors and other optic atmospheric phenomena.

The problem of representation of Russian journals in the international bases of citing is one of the urgent problems facing modern science. One of the means of promotion of Russian journals in international citation database is the RSCI project, a joint project of the Russian science citation index and Web of Science. The subject of the research is to develop scientifically based criteria for inclusion of a journal in RSCI. The author, using the data of the scientometric studies of science, concludes that the selection of journals in RSCI was a significant influence of psychological and organizational factors, rather than objective and scientific. The author concludes about the necessity of primarily relying on objective scientometric indicators of the journal in its selection for presentation in the international bases of citing, rather than the subjective opinion of members of the selection Committee, particularly on such indicators as the ranking of Science index, index of scientific relevance, the impact factor of the journal etc. The results of the research can used to improve selection of scientific journals in the international citation base

The paper is devoted to a new aspect in the study of biological productivity of forest ecosystems on a geographical basis, expressed indirectly by climate parameters. Some features of change of specific net primary production (SNPP) of forest-forming species in Eurasia in the transcontinental gradients are shown for the first time using the voluminous factual material. SNPP represents the ratio of net primary production (NPP) to biomass and is expressed in relative units or percentage (by analogy with the percentage of the current stem volume increment that is used in traditional forest mensuration). An overview of methods and results of studying the percentage of the current stem volume increment and relationships between NPP and biomass involving into SNPP as the numerator and the denominator correspondingly is given. The database on biomass and NPP of forest ecosystems (t/ha) in a number of 920 definitions for 2-needled pines (subgenus Pinus ), 116 - for larches ( Larix Mill.), 480 - for spruce-fir forests ( Picea Dietr., and Abies Mill.) and 230 definitions for birch forests ( Betula L.) on the territory from Britain to South China is compiled. Using multiple regression analysis technique, the statistically significant changes in SNPP of aboveground, underground and understorey biomass according to two transcontinental gradients, namely by zonal belts and continentality of climate, are stated. The age dynamics of different species SNPP has a common pattern of decline with the age of a tree stand, but various quantitative parameters. Regularities of SNPP change according to zonal belts and in relation to the index of climate continentality are statistically significant, but substantial differences between woody species are found, to explain that is not possible yet. Because the term SNPP means «the rate of the transformation of organic substances» or, in other terms, the intensity of nutrient cycling, one apparently must include into the formula for SNPP the current biomass quantity plus all its litter, timber and root falls during the given time period, instead of biomass stock taken from the database formed. However, information on the forest detritus pool is on the level of expert evaluations yet.

Public administration of forests is one of the most important sectors of ecological public administration at the national and local levels. Forest legislation is the legal basis for management, whose quality and regulatory capacity ensure the effectiveness of state power activities aimed at sustainable use, protection and regeneration of forests. The need for reforming and properly updating forest legislation and law enforcement is long overdue, which is confirmed by scientific studies and actual facts. A basic problem of forest management is the absence of an official definition of «forest» and «urban forest». Problems of forest fire protection and management problems in the forest sector (e.g. related to the provision of forest plots and the sale and purchase of forest stands) are widespread. Management problems also cover a mismatch of legislative activity of the competent entities regarding the regulation of forestry relations, the one-time combination of regulatory and supervisory functions in the same bodies, as well as the lack of a single current and objective system of state cadastral registration. The paper mentions peculiarities of identifying legal responsibility for forest offenses. It is noted that office of public prosecutor, being a central supervisory agency of the state due to the nature of its job and position in a system of separation of powers, has vast (if compared with other subjects of administrative relations) opportunities to identify, overcome and eliminate the problems of management of forests. The paper considers separate case materials that show an active role of the national public prosecutor’s office in supporting law and order in the examined field. Generalized conclusions are drawn based on the results of the study.

Russian Federal Forestry Agency has published a Reference Book that contains current characteristics of Forest Fund lands by subjects of the Russian Federation, federal districts, and aggregated data for the entire country. The book does not contain reliable data on areas of forests, for which forest inventory materials either do not exist or have been lost, as well as on details and accuracy of presented forest inventory data. The published information about temporal remoteness of forest inventory data are in contradiction with those that were reported in presentations of official representatives of the Federal Forestry Agency and Roslesinforg, which have been done at different conferences and meetings devoted to forest inventory problems. Four methods of forest inventory and planning, which are used in the State Forest Register (SFR) do not cover all diversity of the methods, which have been used in the Russian forests. There is a clear inconsistency in information on the application of different methods of forest inventory in the country. It follows from the lack of any guidance materials about the account for areas inventoried by aerial survey, rational combination of ground inventory with office deciphering of aerial photographs, and inventory of reserve forests based on remote sensing products. Compatibility of terminology and comparability of information, which have been published in previous reference books and other official publications are not considered. This does not allow understanding of the dynamics of Russian forests for any long periods. Based on analysis of published materials on history of forest inventory in Russia (areas of inventoried forests by a definite date, change of methods and technology etc.), we suggest relevant ways for elimination of the above shortcomings. They include: a) necessity of a strict formal regulation of filling in the forms of the SFR; b) need to use relevant and compatible terminology which would prevent ambiguous or contradictive interpretation; c) relevance to account for all methods of forest inventory which were used in Russia during the last six decades; and d) need to take into account changes of parameters of forest inventory grades, which followed the introduction of the Forest Inventory Manual of 2008.

In 2016 it has been suggested for the Public Council of the Krasnoyarsk Ministry of Nature Resources and Ecology to draw up «Strategy and the Guidance for Developing the Krasnoyarsk Forest Complex until 2030». It suggested setting up a working group of leading researchers and technical experts affiliated with the ministry. Continuity principle should be applied, wherefore analysis of previous experience in elaboration and implementation of such documents is realized. Study of forest fund dynamics for a long-term period of time is an important indicator. Thus, the Krasnoyarsk forest dynamics for the last 50 years (1961-2011) shows extensive development of the regional forest complex. The total growing stock decreased by 12 % and growing stock of coniferous species - by 35 %. «The Concept and Basic Guidelines of Developing the Krasnoyarsk Forest Complex for the Period 2004-2015», that were elaborated by the Moscow State Science Center of Forest Industrial Complex, have been analyzed and principle shortcomings have been noted. In essence, this concept was the basis of developing forest industry, but forestry, as an integral part of forest complex, and biosphere role of forests was not considered. Forest resources were overestimated by tradition. Ecological and economic accessibility of forests were not taken into consideration. Subsequent strategies and programs of the Krasnoyarsk forest complex development, elaborated by the ministry, reduplicated shortcomings of the concept. Following «Strategy of the Krasnoyarsk Forest Industry Development until 2020», the annual allowable cut consists of 81.9 million m³, therefore it may educe increasing harvesting volume of the region without limitation. Meanwhile, the annual allowable cut, which is economically accessible, amounts to 26.8 million m³ (32.7 % of the operating annual allowable cut). Applies and the structure of «Strategy and the Guidance for Developing the Krasnoyarsk Forest Complex until 2030» have been proposed.

From ancient times to the present day, forest public relations has been an issue on the agenda. This relationship’s purpose was initially needed for shelter and nutrition; however today this process has changed with urbanization, overpopulation and understanding the new functions of forests. When land ownership became a tool of production, offenses occurred in order to convert forestlands to agricultural lands. So the vast majority of the world’s forests have been lost for this reason. Today, ​​deforestation is occurring in tropical countries that are expecting to gain agricultural area. The purpose of this study is to investigate the relationship between urbanization and the qualitative and quantitative characteristics of forest crimes, which are a major obstacle for sustainable forestry. Although forests cover about 27 % of Turkey’s territory, the forests are losing viability; the status of wood raw material per unit area and the total area of ​​the country in the ratio of productive forests are becoming critical in Turkey. Turkey’s rugged terrain and factors such as human interventions, fires, deforestation for agriculture, illegal cuttings, or improper grazing reduce existing forests or cause deterioration of their structure. In the past, deforestation, as a result of human interventions in Turkey, was done by forest villagers who live in rural areas. The forest crimes depend on various socio-economic reasons and have many adverse effects on the sustainability of forest and forest existence. In developed countries, illegal interventions such as opening, grazing, cutting, occupation, use, settlement, or hunting crimes have been largely eliminated because of the absence of cadastral problems, the existence of more responsive people to protect the environment and forests and a rural population, which has a higher standard of living. In the last 20 years, there has been both a dramatic decrease in the population living in rural areas and a decrease of forest crimes in rural areas. On the other hand, legal and illegal forest attacks have been increasing due to urbanization in this process. This study was conducted to evaluate Yeşilirmak river basin forest crimes of the last 11 years. Yeşilirmak river basin occupies 3 964 375 ha, which is approximately 5 % of Turkey’s total area and 519 km in length.

A purpose of research is to identify errors in interpretation of satellite images of forests based on image pixel classification by spectral brightness. The Landsat 5 satellite image was used (August, 2005). The results of interpretation were compared with data of forest estimation, i.e. descriptions of forest plots and maps of dominated species. The forest area made up 80.8 thousand ha; quantity of plots was about 2700, including 573 sampling plots; specified number of clusters classification image - 10. As a result, there were intolerable errors in land categories, forest formations and dominated species on the level of forest plot generalization. Thus, interpretation of forest land images having applied a method of classification of spectral brightness pixels could be applied for small scale mapping only. It is supposed that inclusion of spatial analysis of relief digital simulation in the process of interpretation will improve a quality of performance. Stratums of locations were formalized by means of registration of absolute altitudes, slopes, and exposures. Spatial analysis was carried out on the base of Shuttle Radar Topographic Mission database. Errors of forest stand density, average ages and heights of trees exceed norms, which were specified for the least detailed third category of forest inventory. In such a case, there is not error reduction considering single stratums of locations. Categories of forest lands and variation of forest estimation indicates do not depend on a picture of satellite images. Therefore, achieving required accuracy of interpretation having applied methods of imagery classification and transformation, i.e. by use of the normalized vegetative index, does not seem possible. Consequently, applying the actual methods of satellite image classification in forest inventory cannot be recommended.

For the main tree species in North America, Europe and Japan, a number of thousands of allometric equations for single-tree biomass estimation using mostly tree height and stem diameter at breast height are designed that are intended for terrestrial forest mensuration. However, an innovative airborne laser method of the forest canopy sensing allows processing of on-line a number of morphological indices of trees, to combine them with the biomass allometric models and to evaluate the forest carbon pools. The database of 28 wood and shrub species containing 2.4 thousand definitions is compiled for the first time in the forests of Eurasia, and on its basis, the allometric transcontinental models of fractional structure of biomass of two types and dual use are developed. The first of them include as regressors the tree height and crown diameter and are intended for airborne laser location, while the latter have a traditional appointment for terrestrial forest biomass taxation using tree height and stem diameter. Those and others explain, in most cases, more than 90 % of tree biomass variability. Processing speed of laser location, incommensurable with the terrestrial mensuration, gives the possibility of assessing the change of carbon pool of forests on some territories during periodic overflights. The proposed information can be useful when implementing activities on climate stabilization, as well as in the validation of the simulation results when evaluating the carbon depositing capacity of forests.

Studies of spatial-temporal variability of the upper boundary of the forest on the north-western coast of Lake Baikal (Baikal and Upper Angara Ridges) are performed on the base of the analysis of forests renewal processes and of the dynamics of larch radial increment in the ecotone of the forest upper boundary and out of it. The presence of a large amount of well-developed uplands and circuses with considerable heights drops in the structure of mountain system favours formation of interrupted boundary between forest and subgoltsy belt. The timber stand of the upper forest boundary in the studied area is represented by Daurian larch. Three tree-ring chronologies of larch are obtained. The longest chronology is obtained for mountain taiga belt of Baikal Ridge and is as long as 460 years. Since 1980ies, a sustainable trend of increase of radial trees growth is observed. It is observed the most distinctly in trees of the upper forest boundary on the Baikal Ridge. There is advancing of trees species into subgoltsy belt and into mountain tundra, which depends, respectively, on slopes heights, exposition and tilting, on sites of growth of concrete cenoses. Modern peculiarity of the vegetation of the studied area is presence of abundant viable larch undergrowth (from 2-3 to 25 y.o.) and fir in the ecotone of upper forest boundary and in subgoltsy belt, as well as appearing of single specimens of spruce. Main undergrowth mass (2/3) is presented by trees aged in average 15-25 y.o., i.e., they appeared in late 1980ies. Due to increase of snow cover thickness in winter, the trees young growth obtained great protection from freezing resulting in the increase of ability of young growth to live up to elder age.

It is proposed to analyze the stands’ condition to use the method of tendencies, which occupies an intermediate position between a static evaluation of the life conditions and the dynamic assessment of the condition. The trends take into account the totality of the factors, affecting the condition of the trees. The basis for the method is the analysis of tree distribution by the categories of condition. This approach allowed us to identify a set of factors affecting the condition of the trees, depending on the growth conditions of soil and tree species. Siberian larch is characterized by healthy condition, regardless of the method of planting, density, number of rows and soil conditions. This situation can be explained by shelterbelts’ age not exceeding 20 years. At older ages, the soil conditions influence field-protecting forest belts. The best conditions are formed in the stands on the southern chernozems of pure composition, with a row and chess-type of planting. In clean multi-row pine stands, the trees are more healthy condition, compared to mixed stands. The living condition of birch stands is weakened. Favorable conditions found in pure Siberian elm stands with a 3-row and chess-type planting, compared to mixed stands. Relatively favorable conditions for the growth of black poplar trees were observed in pure 4-row stands, growing on ordinary chernozems. Point scale assessment of the stands shows that healthy state have larch belts in the steppe of Shira lake. Field-protecting shelter belts in the Republics of Khakassia and Tyva, with some exceptions, are in weakened and badly weakened condition. In those stands conducting agronomic and silvicultural treatments to improve mineral nutrition and moisture supply is the urgent need.

In 2007-2014 on the permanent sample plot (PSP) in Krasnoyarsk suburban young pine forest (forest-steppe zone of Central Siberia), annual inventory characteristics were estimated. PSP area was 0.024 ha. In 2007 the average age of pine young forest was 7 years; 413 trees with height more than 1.3 m, including 412 living trees and 1 dead tree were measured. Since 2007 the parameters of each tree were measured every year. The diameter at the height of 1.3 m (D_1,3), the tree height (H), the category of vital state (by a 6-grade scale of the Forest Health Regulation of the Russian Federation) were determined. The stem volume (V) of each tree was estimated using regression equation including the variables: V, D_1,3, H . Parameters of the equation were calculated by sample trees, measured in 2007 and 2014. The timber stock was determined as the sum of stem volumes of the separate trees. At early stage of pine tree stand formation, the form factor ( f ) in young pine growth exceeded 1. During 2007-2014 average diameter increased from 1.8 to 5.3 cm, average height - from 2.3 to 6.2 m, timber stock of the growing trees - from 16 to 128 m³/ha, dead timber stock of the dead trees - from 0 to 1 m³/ha. In 2007 density of more than 17 thousand trees per ha was registered. The maximum density of more than 18 thousand trees per ha was registered in 2009. In the next years, this indicator monotonically decreased. In 2014 density was less than 15 thousand trees per ha. The increase in density is due to increase in the number of trees, with height more than 1.3 m, the decrease - by phytocoenotic stress and felling. In 2007 the category of the tree stand vital state was near 1. In 2014 the category was 1.3. Condition of the young pine tree stand naturally regenerated at arable land after ground fire might be estimated as very good. This young stand is prospective to form high-density pine forest in the absence of creeping fires.

The analysis of age dynamics of average diameters of deciduous tree stands of different forest types at Highland Khamar-Daban (natural woodland in South-East Baikal Lake region) has been done. The aggregate data of average tree, the analysis of age dynamics of average diameters of a deciduous tree stands of stand diameters by age classes, as well as tree stand current periodic and overall average increment are presented and discussed in the paper. Forest management appraisal is done. The most representative forest types have been selected to be analyzed. There were nine of them including three Siberian stone pine Pinus sibirica Du Tour stands, three Siberian fir Abies sibirica Ledeb. stands, one Siberian spruce Picea obovata Ledeb. stand, and two dwarf Siberian pine Pinus pumila (Pallas) Regel stands. The whole high-altitude range of mountain taiga has been evaluated. Mathematical and statistic indicators have been calculated for every forest type. Stone pine stands are the largest. Dynamics of mean diameters of forest stands have been examined by dominant species for every forest type. Quite a number of interesting facts have been elicited. Generally, all species have maximal values of periodic annual increment that is typical for young stands, but further decrease of increment is going on differently and connects to the different lifetime of wood species. It is curious that annual increment of the dwarf Siberian pine stands almost does not decrease with aging. As for mean annual increment, it is more stable than periodic annual increment. From the fifth age class (age of stand approaching maturity) mean annual increment of cedar stands varies from 0.20 to 0.24 cm per year; from 0.12-0.15 to 0.18-0.21 cm per year - in fir stands; from 0.18 to 0.24 cm per year - in spruce stands; and from 0.02-0.03 to 0.05-0.06 cm per year - in draft pine stands. Mean annual increment of dwarf Siberian pine increases with aging and increment of other species holds up almost the same, but decreases slightly with aging.

In June and July 2010 in Yaroslavl, Vologda and Kostroma regions, as a result of exposure to hurricane winds, recorded several violations of extensive forest cover in the form of windfalls and windbreaks (Krylov et al., 2012; Petukhov, Nemchinova, 2014). Retrospective analysis on the basis of remote sensing data for the period 1984-2011’s was conducted. It showed, that among the 21st dedicated mass windfall within the Kostroma region and border areas, windfall July 2010 is unique in the magnitude of the total area of disturbed forest cover. According to our estimates, derived from the analysis of remote sensing (RS), its area was more than 60 thousand Ha, which is four times the average annual area of clear felling, in particular, in the Kostroma region (Petukhov, Nemchinova, 2014). In addition to determining the areas of windfall violations of forest cover, based on forest inventory data and remote sensing data analyzed taxation characteristics of forest stands affected by the impact of the seven gale-force winds within the territory of the Kostroma region. The analysis revealed the following trends in hurricane-force winds damaged trees: for parameters such as completeness, forest type and site class is observed relatively uniform stands hurricane wind damage; I.e., we have not found an association between the degree (probability) of forest stands damaged data and taxation values data. An exception is the age, height, and in some cases, the predominant species plantations. Plantations dominated by spruce in the stand proved to be somewhat less, but with a predominance of pine - more resistant to hurricane winds, compared to other tree species. Selectivity is also observed for breach of stands older than 40 years and a height of over 16 meters, which is possibly related to the morphological and physiological features of the trees of a given age and height.

The paper presents the validation results of the InSAR method for determining the forest canopy height, based on TanDEM-X and ALOS PALSAR data. The research conducted on the territory of the Baikal-Kudara forest area of the Republic of Buryatia (52°10'N, 106°48'E). Forest vegetation is represented mainly by conifers - pine, and spruce, with a small admixture of deciduous trees - aspen, birch, etc. The forest vegetation height was determined by subtracting the digital elevation model (DEM) of the digital terrain model (DTM). DEM is built according to the L-band (wavelength of 23.5 cm) ALOS PALSAR satellite with horizontal co-polarization mode. In the investigation it was assumed that a radar signal of ALOS PALSAR passes all forest thickness and reflected from the underlying surface, made it possible to recover terrain under forest canopy. DTM has been built using the TanDEM-X data (wavelength 3 cm). In this case, it was assumed that the radar echoes scattered from a some virtual phase centers of scattering surface, which characterizes the upper limit of the continuous forest canopy. To check the accuracy of satellite definitions of forest height in study area were made high-precision geodetic measurement of trees heights using electronic total station and the coordinates of geographic control points using differential GPS receivers. The discrepancy between the satellite and ground-based measurements at 11 test sites did not exceed 2 m, which is mainly due to the difference in measurement techniques: height of individual trees by ground methods and continuous forest canopy height using radar interferometry.

The purpose of work was detection of regularities of bark formation on various parts of stems of Siberian larch Larix sibirica Ledeb. trees. In work, materials of ten trial areas established in larch stands of green moss group of forest types are used. 703 sample trees were cut down and measured. The trial areas were established at Priangarsky and Central Siberian subtaiga-forest-steppe forest vegetation regions. Sample trees were cut down into sections, equal to one tenth of the stem length. As a result of the carried-out works, the average sizes of double thickness of bark at stems of various diameter are established. The mathematical model, describing regularities of bark formation at various relative heights of stems of the Siberian larch trees with various diameters is constructed. This mathematical model is the basis for the auxiliary table containing data characterizing a bark share in diameter of a stem with bark. The relative sizes of bark on various sites of stems are established. For this purpose the double thickness of bark at height of the corresponding one-tenth height of a stem wood is taken for basic parameter. The bark sizes at other relative heights are expressed percentage of basic size. The relative sizes of bark changes from 206.8 % at the stem basis to 20.8 % for sections of the corresponding 0.9 shares of the stem height. The supplied generalizing information on the forest vegetation areas stated above is provided in work. The equation of pair dependence of relative double thickness of bark on the relative height of section of a stem is calculated. The obtained data might be used at creation of standards for valuation of the larch stands of the research area, such as volume, assortment and commodity tables.