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At the turn of the XIX - XX centuries the foreign authors paid increasingly greater attention to Russia’s successes in the Arctic territories development. This topic was covered mostly by periodicals published in the United States, Great Britain and Germany - the leading naval powers of the time. The present article attempts at reviewing major works published by the English- and German-language researchers in order to reveal main trends in studying the history of the Russian Arctic development in the XIX - early XX centuries. Describing Russia’s activities in the Arctic (F.Schwatka, G.Melville, A. Hrdlicka) Western authors contributed to the overall picture of the imperial expansion and power of Russia. The first decades of the XX century were marked by the growing activities of European countries in the Arctic region raising a topical question of these territories’ legal status. One of the ways to claim the rights to these areas was to organize expeditions (described in the works by R. Bartlett, V. Stefansson, N.A. Transehe, H.Abel, W. Barr). The history of the Northern Sea Route exploration and development was studied by C. Crypton, T.Armstrong, W.E. Butler. In the 1990s - early 2000s the Arctic policy of the Russian empire in the pre-revolutionary period was analyzed by P. Horensma, J. McCannon, D. Dahlmann. Problems of relationships between the Russian population and aboriginal peoples of the Far North were discussed by A.Kappeler, Yu.Slezkine, D.Anderson. The contemporary research is focused on the negative aspects of the Russian “paternalist” policy and tends to reject the “russocentric” approach and to describe the history of indigenous small-numbered peoples of the North from their point of view.

The paper presents two opposing views on evaluation of economic potential of the North and prospects of its development shared by representatives of political elite, metropolitan and Siberian business communities in the late XIX - early XX centuries. This period of history was marked not only by fundamental internal transformations in the country, destruction of the Russian empire’s foundations and establishment of Soviet power, but also by a difficult foreign policy situation caused by the Russo-Japanese War and World War I. Having analysed various ideas, initiatives, plans and undertakings in regard to the Russian Arctic development the authors showed that the government remained passive and estranged itself from the problems of Northern territories that could be explained not only by the lack of funds and resources along with harsh climatic conditions, but also by the short-sightedness of administrators and policy makers. Thoughout most of the XIX century the Russian North remained economically neglected. Mechanisms preventing its economic development acted throughout the entire territory of the country. Local administration being in the custody of the central government supported its policy and in every possible way interfered with the attempts and initiatives of the Siberian entrepreneurs and public figures who were ready to invest millions of roubles in the projects of transportation and economic development of the North. Great importance in these projects was given to developing the network of railway communications. Its lines were to be built to the Murmansk Coast - the future ocean port opening to Russia a gate to the transoceanic trade links. However, private funds were inscufficent for the large-scale development of the Northern territories. In the 1920s the estabishment of Soviet power and concentration of all financial resources of the country gave a real chance for implementation of projects of railroads and sea ports construction not only along the Murmansk Coast but in the Far East as well.

The paper analyzes expeditionary materials of a member of the Second Kamchatka expedition (1733-1743) G.F. Müller characterizing the ethnic structure of the Samoyedic peoples of the North-Western Siberia as well as some specific features of their material and spiritual culture. For the first time in historiography the author introduces into scientific use facts from the previously unstudied G.F. Müller’s manuscripts written in German language and comprised of the scholar’s field book, draft materials and rough copies later used in his “Description of the Siberian peoples”. It is shown that these sources significantly contribute to the dictionaries compiled by G.F.Müller, especially in terms of ethnonymics of the Samoyedic peoples and their dialect clusters. It is proved that G.F.Müller (a century before M.A.Castren) was the first to determine that the Selkup language (“Ostyaks of Narym language”) belongs to the Samoyedic languages and not to the Finno-Ugric group. The author gives some unique data on ethnonymics of the peoples of Mangazeya uyezd revisiting the problem of autoethnonim of “tavgi” (Nganasans) and putting a question whether Yurak Samoyeds were a separate ethnos or just a dialect group of the Nenets. Wide array of data collected directly from the indigenous population of Mangazeya uyezd allowed the scientists to define the Yuraks as a separate ethnos speaking its own language. The paper considers G.F. Müller’s materials on the ethnography of Samoyedic peoples that are of great importance for researchers. Unlike many previous authors who had compared Samoyeds and Finno-Ugric peoples with wild animals G.F. Müller argued that their anthropological parameters were very close to these of Europeans, that they were notable for kindness of heart, inability to hurt someone deliberately, mercifulness and sentimentality. These and other arguments of G.F. Müller demonstrate that he not merely stood at the origins of ethnographic studies on Samoyedic and Finno-Ugric peoples of the North, but also showed goodwill, impartiality and eagerness to see the best human qualities in the nomads of the tundra.

The paper analyzes the ultimate administrative-territoral division of the Arctic territories in the Northeastern part of the Russian Empire in the second half of the XIX - early XX century, that resulted in creation of the Kamchatka Oblast in 1909. The situation on the Chukotka penincula is considered in terms of integration of the Chukchi population under the Russian patriality by establishment of Anadyr District in 1888 and Chukotsky District in 1909. The author also studies projects of administrative reorganization of Northern territories, in particular, by means of uniting the Kamchatka and Yakutsk Oblasts into a new general-governorship centered in Yakutsk. Another issue under consideration is the administrative system in the territorial units of the Arctic Zone of Asiatic Russia, first of all in the Yakutsk Oblast. The author pays attention to the administrative staff (Yakutsk governors, district and uyezd police officers - “ispravniks”); states that the key position of the Yakutsk civil governor was held by the officials who had previoisly served in siberia for a long time, demonstrating initiative and ability to make their own decisions. Among such governors one should mention Yu.I. Stubendorf, V.N. Skripitsin, I.I. Kraft. The policy of “indigenization” of the administrative staff (aimed at engagement of the native-born Siberians) had some positive effects. Northern territories were always under control of the West-Siberian (before 1882) and East-Siberian (Irkutsk) governors-generals who regularly made inspection visits.

Based on the previously unstudied sources the article attempts to identify specifics of development of remote areas in the north-eastern Siberia by representatives of large firms. The authors analyze the merchant correspondence of V. I. Fefelov, the authorized representative of the trading house «Kokovin and Basov», coming to conclusion that in the harsh conditions of the North the clerk managed to organize, in a very short period of time, an uninterrupted supply of tea and other goods from the ports of the Sea of Okhotsk to the central regions of the Yakutsk region, Chukotka and Kamchatka. Fefelov organized overland transportation through its own transport company. Appointing such an experienced salesman as V.I. Fefelov to serve in the Department of Ayan provided the firm «Kokovin and Basov» an opportunity to develop in a very short time gold deposits, as well as to acquire new resources for timber trade. V.I. Fefelov played a considerable role in arranging the trading business. Besides that, at the beginning of the XX century, he created а detailed map of Aldomа and the territory adjacent to the Bay of Ayan. The authors show the dynamics of development of commercial affairs conducted by the Ayan department of the firm «Kokovin and Basov». It is noted that within the period of 1908-1910, the turnover of trading business at Ayan department grew, both in tea trade and in furs. Moreover, in order to attract fishermen, V. I. Fefelov introduced a system of credit for cash instead of barter. The authors concluded that the development of commodity-money relations in the North-Eastern Siberia resulted not only in the expansion of areas of large firms’ trade operations, but also in the strengthening of their economic positions at strategic locations on the coast of the Sea of Okhotsk. Agent activities of trustees of large firms included trading in goods, developing the northern territories, and gold and timber resources. At the same time, trading business infrastructure was formed and new means of communication were developed.

The article considers the role played by certain West-Siberian administrators in the XIX century, both military and civilian, in implementation of the policy aimed at development of the Northern territories under their jurisdiction. It is noted that they demonstrated mostly passive or indifferent attitudes towards the North, greed for gain, toadied to their bosses for promotion. However some of these administrators adhered to the ideas of paternalism and modernization. The author addresses concerns brought up by the governors and governors-general of Western Siberia: low level of economic development, sparsity, poverty, ignorance and diseases of population, difficulties in collecting the yasak (fur tribute). They proposed their own solutions foreseeing the improvement of means of communication, Christianization and enlightenment, development of fishing industry, regulation of the relationships between the indigenous population (“inorodtsy”) and the Russian fishery managers, revision of personnel policy and improvement of the system of administration. The author deals with several specific proposals: participation of V.A. Artsimovich in the attempt to implement the project of V.N. Latkin and M.K. Sidorkin on the construction of the Ob-Pechora Canal and participation of N.G. Kaznakov in investigating the possibility of a sea route to Siberia; D.n. Bantysh-Kamenskiy’s decision to send doctors to the Northern territories; G.Kh.Gasford’s quest for a compromise in the controversies between the Russians and the natives. Special attention is paid to the appointment of G.A. Kolpakovskiy, head of the military district, to the Beryozovskiy district and his activity. The author notes the significance of geopolitical situation and the government’s choice between the policy of preserving the special system of “inorodtsy” administration or its unification with the general imperial administration. It is emphasized that personal qualities of administrators affected the intensity and range of their participation in the Northern territories development.

The article considers main directions of governmental policy aimed at the development of the North-Eastern territories of Russia and their incorporation into the economic and social life of the state in the late XVIII - first half of the XIX century. The author studies cooperation between the government and private individuals in this sphere; analyzes solutions for such problems as settlement of the North-East regions, construction of transport networks, providing food for population, policy towards the indigenous peoples. It is concluded that during the period under investigation there was no long-term state strategy for the development of North-East areas of the Empire; any measures taken by the government were implemented within the plans of general development of Siberia. The paper focuses on colonization of key strategic regions in the North - Kamchatka and Okhotsk coast. Projects on colonization of the remote Northern territories proposed by the officials or merchants proved that both civil servants and private entrepreneurs clearly realized that the majority of problems connected with colonization of Northern territories could not be solved without the state’s active participation. Special attention is paid to the largest project implemented during this period of history - the Russian-American company’s activities. However there had been no considerable accomplishments by the middle of the XIX century - largely due to the lack of systematic efforts aimed at colonization of North-Eastern areas.

The paper analyzes historical experience of consumers co-operatives in the sphere of organization of trade and provision of food and manufactured goods to the population of the North. The author draws attention to one of the most important prerequisites for cooperative societies’ formation in hard to reach regions - and namely, activities of cooperative unions located in the southern agricultural areas of Siberia where they created their own networks and used the river and sea transportation routes. In August-September, 1919 a large union of consumer co-operative societies (Zakupsbyt) organized exchange of commodities between Siberia and Western Europe via the Ob river and the Northern Sea Route. The consumers society of the village of Khe was formed in the Obdorskiy district of the Tobolsk Okrug of the Ural Oblast in February 1920, on the initiative of the local population leading a settled or nomadic life in the basin of the Gulf of Ob. Specifics of commercial and economic activities of the society was determined by the natural and geographical factors and national composition of population, its lifestyle and needs. The area of its operations covered the villages within the jurisdiction of Soviets of the Khe and Taz settlements and the nomadic population in the tundra of Yamal and Lower Ob regions. This area included 20 rich fisheries while the tundra abounded in fur-bearing animals. Consumer cooperative reached out to a significant share of adult population. By July 1 ^st, 1925 it had 257 members-shareholders, most of them belonged to the small numbered peoples of the North - the Samoyeds and Zyryans (222 people or 86.4%) who practiced rain-deer herding, trapping and fishing and led a nomadic life in tundra. In the consumer cooperative all managerial functions were performed by representatives (15 out of 33 people) of the Russian settled population. The society spent considerable sums on cultural work among the masses that was a reliable indicator of successful economic activities. Despite the difficult economic situation during the first years of NEP and the district’s geographic remoteness the society proved to be quite viable and complied with principles of cooperative organization.

The article considers problems connected with development and implementation of the models of state administration in the Arctic during the Soviet period; analyzes basic principles of regulation of the socioeconomic and political processes in the Arctic territories. Since the public administration in the Soviet Arctic and its specific features remain understudied by historians, the present paper is mainly restricted to the statement of this question. The author attempts at determining the main factors and priorities of the Soviet state policy in the Northern regions of the country. This work led to a conclusion that problems of Soviet state administration can be considered, on the one hand, within the framework of methodological and conceptual approach postulating the existence of the world circumpolar civilization; on the other hand - in the context of dynamics of the Russian state’s development. It is stated that practically all vital processes in the Arctic were largely affected by changes in the state strategy aimed, first of all, at the Northern territories’ incorporation into the national economic complex of the USSR. In so doing the state used mostly the methods and mechanism of mobilization that proved to be most efficient in accomplishing the stated goals. It is noted that the mobilization model of administration in the Soviet Arctic remained practically to the end of the Soviet period. The specific forms and methods varied, while the basic goals set from the Center of state administration were invariable. As a result the Soviet models of state administration in the Arctic reflected the need to use the mineral and other resources of the region, both to meet the country’s domestic needs and to strengthen its positions on the international stage.

The formation of high-velocity compact elements of shaped charges with a liner of a combined hemisphere-cylinder shape has been analyzed by numerical simulations of a two-dimensional axisymmetric problem of continuum mechanics. The influence of the radius and thickness of the hemispherical portion of the combined liner on the parameters of the compact elements has been studied. It is shown that in implosion of hemispherical liners whose thickness decreases from top to bottom, there is an increase in the velocity of the resulting jet flow. When using a hemispherical portion of variable thickness (to increase the velocity of the compact elements formed), it is necessary to solve two additional problems-to implement timely separation of the head part of the jet flow with increased velocity and increase its mass. For this, it is proposed to use the jet-forming part of the combined liner in the form of a truncated sphere or a slightly elongated ellipsoid of revolution. Combined shaped-charge liners in the form of a truncated ellipsoid of variable thickness were developed, allowing the formation of compact elements having a velocity of 7.5–10 km/s.