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In the lead-up to the 100 ^th anniversary of the Institute of Geography RAS, we summarized the salient features and chronol ogy of its field investigations into the country’s nature and resources during the 20 ^th -21 ^st centuries. It is shown that the institute’s history has embodied all stages of evolution of national geography: the traditions of the late 19 ^th century with their departure from the perception of geography as a «descriptive» science and the development of genetic (V. V. Dokuchaev’s) and chorologi cal (A. Hettner’s) approaches, the development of the sectoral specialization of science, the introduction of modern methods: remote sensing, navigation and geoinformation technologies, and the formation of the geography of the 21 ^st century as a philo sophical phenomenon and a synthetic discipline with profound prospects for a better understanding a rapidly changing world. This was all facilitated by the institute’s continual expedition activity that began in the first years of its functioning and has continued to date. For the first time in the historiography of the national academic geography, we determined the vectors of field investigations at the time of change of the paradigm of its interaction with practice and the relatively poorly studied territory of the country. A brief history of the permanent stations operated by the institute is given as well as identifying the periods of its functioning according to the character of expedition work: the 1920s, 1930s, the period of the Great Patriotic War 1941-1945, 1946-1965, 1966-1990, and from 1991 till the present.

We consider the research activity of the talented scientist Dashi-Dondok Bazarov. This paper briefly reviews the main stages of his creative life and lists his major scientific achievements. Dashi-Dondok Bazarov was a very versatile scientist. In addition to applied research, he was also interested in basic research, such as stratigraphy of Cenozoic deposits, reconstruction of paleogeographical and paleolandscape settings of the Quaternary, history of relief evolution, compilation of geomorphological and engineering-geological maps, schemes of neotectonics for separate areas of Cisbaikalia and Transbaikalia, paleozoology and paleobotany, paleoecology and natural environmental protection. The thematic maps generated by Dashi-Dondok Bazarov or with his participation have been and are widely used for applied and educational purposes, mineral exploration and geological forecasts. It is emphasized that his principal merit was the creation of his school of Transbaikalian Quaternary geologists and geomorphologists, a school that has been successfully working and showing excellent results to date.

The tendency for the progressive establishment of the formation of a broad integration association of a continental scale, «Greater Eurasia», on the basis of the Eurasian Economic Union and the Shanghai Cooperation Organization is highlighted. A common geographical feature of the countries referred involved in this partnership is revealed, i. e. the unique ultra-continen tal location of their remote inland territories at the world’s largest distance from economical sea routes and major world markets. An example of the countries of Central Asia, Russian Siberia and western regions of China shows the negative influence of the ultra-continentality factor manifesting itself primarily in increased transportation costs, which creates considerable barriers to economic growth and foreign trade activity. It is suggested that the accelerated creation of international transport corridors of both latitudinal and meridional orientation be regarded as a potential powerful means for closer economic consolidation and interdependent economic development of the remote inland territories of «Greater Eurasia». The new development opportunities for Siberia opening up before Siberia with the establishment of «Greater Eurasia» are pointed out: access of the Siberian regions via the transport corridors to nearby inland markets, the creation of preconditions for a deeper onsite processing of Siberian raw materials by organizing final process stages and obtaining transportable products with high added value, and by overcoming the depressing effect of the ultra-continentality on economic growth through the construction of the transport corridor on the basis of the Trans-Siberian Railroad using advanced technological solutions.

This paper outlines the principles of using GIS technologies in conjunction with methods from natural sciences in geoar chaeological research. We examine the model of the development of geoinformatics demonstrating the technological transition from «data» through «information» to new «knowledge». The relevance and importance of these categories are highlighted for different stages of geoarchaeological analysis. It is determined that the technology for generation of archaeological and geo graphical databases providing a means of dealing with two problems: cataloging of archaeological sites and retrospective model ing of the historical process with the archaeological landscape, is the key element of the suggested approaches in accumulation and processing of information on artifacts. Central to the conceptual model of GIS-based mapping of archaeological sites used in this study is the technology of mathematical-cartographic mapping based on the synthesis of mathematical, information, geo information, cartographic and other models. Special attention in this cognitive process is paid to the fundamentally new capa bilities of the geoarchaeological analysis and archaeological reconstructions whose potential has not yet been revealed. It is emphasized that the cartographic and geoinformation-based methods are the key tools in the spatiotemporal analysis. Experience and results of experiments as obtained in the course of investigations showed considerable prospects for a further development of archaeological geoinformatics and cartography. It is established that algorithmization of the procedures of geoarchaeological data collection and GIS model construction is an integral part of the spatial analysis of geoarchaeological sites. By testing in practice some of the technological methods, it was possible to make a comprehensive geoarchaeological analysis of the study territory during the era of the Great Silk Road as well as realizing in full measure one of the classes of cartographic models and develop ing on their basis a series of thematic maps.

It is determined that nowadays the creation of atlases of a large region requires its integrated study (by combining eco logical, environmental and socio-economic components), which is only possible subject to the availability of explicitly developed integrated mapping programs. It is shown that for the transformation of research material to a constructive mapping model, it is necessary to determine the range of topical issues to be studied, establish the procedure of developing them, and select methodol ogy and technology of cartographic modeling of results from theoretical frameworks. We outline how a further development of the scientific principles, methodology and technology of system-ecological mapping furnishes a means of making a prospective targeted cartographic analysis and interpretation of social, economic and physical-geographical information thus enabling easy switchover to the creation of assessment, optimization and other environmental maps of new constructive contents. On the basis of summarizing experience of developing All-Russian and regional ecological atlases covering the territory of the Baikal region, we examine the conceptual approaches and organizational-methodological principles of creating a new type of atlas by using, as an example, the draft of the Atlas of the Baikal region: Nature and Society.

Long-term comprehensive field investigations of landscapes on the territory of Donskoi Natural Park and Elton Natural Park in Volgograd oblast suggested the conclusions about the pyrogenic dynamics of geosystems. A monitoring has revealed that fires have a negative influence on steppe and desert steppe landscapes. It was determined that fires lead to a reduction in biodi versity of geosystems, an attenuation of the self-regulation processes and a decrease in resistance to external effects. It is found that the structure is simplified in steppe geosystems, the homogeneity of vegetation cover increases, the height of the grass stand overall projective cover decrease by a factor of 2-3 and 1.5-2, respectively, and woody-shrubby vegetation dies. The color aspects of steppe are only poorly pronounced. Frequent fires in virgin steppes cause changes in the phytocenosis structure, namely, mesophilic grasses and forbs disappear, Festuca valesiaca replaces Stipa, and sagebrush and other weeds invade ter ritories. Biological productivity of geosystems decreases considerably within a long period (3-5 years). Consequences of the pyrogenic influence have been recorded. Aneolation and ablation come into action. Landscapes of calciphilous steppes and desert steppes suffer the most from the harm done by fire. It has been recorded that the most serious damage is inflicted by late summer and autumn fires when there is a considerable amount of leaf litter accumulated on the soil surface. It has been con cluded that the pyrogenic transformation of geosystems presents the most serious threat to biological and landscape diversity of steppes.

One of the world’s largest rivers, Yenisei, is considered in terms of sustainable water management, in accordance with the Water Strategy of the Russian Federation into 2020. For that purpose, the UN indicators of water management and the re gional indicators (developed by the authors previously) were used as well as the hydrobiological indicators which they can be regarded as the measure of ecosystem stability as they reflect the response of hydrobionts to the anthropogenic effect. The system of indicators thus generated includes four criteria: hydrographic characteristics, the socioeconomic state of water management, waste water characteristics, the surface water quality, and biological characteristics. Each of the criteria is represented by sev eral indicators whose contents are filled with statistical material for the period 1993-2015, by numerical estimates made by these authors, and by expedition-based and published data. It is shown that the water discharge within the Yenisei basin is ineffective: the technical status of the water supply systems is in serious decay, the proportion of recycled and reused water is low, and the water consumption indicator per unit of gross domestic product is high. Because of the decline of the production level, freshwater intake and waste water discharge have decreased; however, this has not led to any improvement in surface water quality. The chemical and biological methods of water quality assessment for the Yenisei river have shown similar results corresponding to the «contaminated» and «dirty» classes. Channel storage of the Yenisei changed its thermal regime, resulting in structural rearrange ments of biological communities and triggering a decrease in stability of the aquatic ecosystem.

An analysis is made of the migration and accumulative ability of pollutants to identify their role in formation of the chemical composition of the water environment using, as an example, the Southern-Minusinsk Depression affected by atmospheric pollution from aluminum production. Information is obtained on the chemical composition of water in atmospheric precipitation, rivers, lakes and deep waters of the background territory which are used as a standard of comparison with the analogs from the zone of atmospheric pollution where the content levels of the main pollutants (F^-, Na⁺, Al³⁺, and Ni²⁺) were determined. The fluoride ion was identified as the priority pollutant element, with its weight and toxicity predominating. The area of lands polluted by this element is about 250 km ² . It is established that the water component of the initial segment of the hydrosphere in the atmospheric precipitation → soil solutions → waters of the surface runoff → groundwater sequence underwent the largest effect. It is found that the composition of snow water changed from chloride-hydrocarbonate sodium-calcium to sulfate-fluoride sodium aluminum. The composition of rain water changed from chloride-hydrocarbonate calcium-sodium to hydrocarbonate-fluoride calcium - aluminum-sodium. Soil solutions contain in their composition a larger number of HCO3 and Ca²⁺ ions and are categorized as sulfate-hydrocarbonate calcic with the involvement of F^-, Na⁺ and Mg²⁺ . It is determined that groundwater of the 1 ^st level (as deep as 10 m) remains almost unchanged in its structure but in the vicinity of the plants they contain an increased amount of fluorine. Deep hydrocarbonate magnesium-calcium water used for drinking water supply is characterized by a persistently low fluorine content level. A very small quantity of this element remains in the Yenisei which is in 5 km to the south from the emission source. The increased amount of fluorine and aluminum in lakes is caused mainly by natural factors.

Presented is a generally large-scale scientific reference vegetation map compiled for the first time at a scale of 1:100 000 for the Zeya State Nature Reserve and Tukuringra Range. The map legend is based on original field material, and the contour part of the map was developed by using Landsat and Spot imagery from different seasons. Spatial distribution models of species with a significant role in phytocenosis were used to delineate between vegetation units. The scheme of the altitudinal-belt dif ferentiation of vegetation is refined; in the eastern part of Tukuringra Range, we identified three altitudinal belts: subgoletz, mountain-taiga and subtaiga, with subbelts and altitudinal-climatic belts. The cenotic diversity and structure of vegetation is presented in the context of the altitudinal-belt and intrabelt organization of vegetation cover. The map displays the diversity of plant communities of the territory at the level of groups of associations and, more rarely, associations within formations and provides 72 thematic units including five for tundras, five for elfin wood and open wood, 42 for forests, three for vegetation on rocks and screes, one for meadows, and one for shrubs. A rationale is given to the boundaries of encroachment of the Manchu rian florocenotic complex on Tukuringra Range. An assessment is made of the spatial role of different plant communities. We examine the dynamical states of plant communities and identify the areas occupied by secondary small-leaved forests, and by plant communities of early stages of post-fire rehabilitation. The association of plant communities with the geomorphological structure of the territory is pointed out; more specifically, the valley vegetation on the map is considered in the form of series reflecting the formation stages of vegetation at different ecological and age levels of the floodplain-terrace complex. It is shown that the patterns of ecological and spatial occurrence of plant communities as revealed by mapping them can be extrapolated to neighboring mountains of the Amur river basin.

Long-term soil research efforts (1980-2017) in the Baikal drainage basin revealed a widespread occurrence of thin layers of skeletal soils in the tundra zone: peat-lithozems, lithozems coarse humus and humic and dark-humus, and petrozems. A va riety of full-height soils is represented by podburs, peat-podburs, podburs gleyic, podzols and gleysols. It is determined that the soil cover of the mountain-taiga zone is nonuniform because of the manifestation of the vertical zonation, slope aspects and permafrost of different types. The main background of the Khangai soils consists of cryosols and podburs; Khentii - sod-podburs and dark-humus soils; near Lake Khövsgöl - cryosols, podburs and sod-podburs; the Baikal region - podburs, podzols, peat podburs and sod-podzols, and on the windward slopes of the mountain ridges facing Baikal - podburs and coarse humus bu rozems. The occurrence and development of burozem soils in the Baikal region is confirmed. In the forest-steppe zone of Hangai and Khentii, the soil diversity is presented by cryosols, sod-podburs, dark- and gray-humus soils, and in the forest-steppe contact zone - chernozems and castanozems. It is established that in the Selenga middle mountains, the basis for soil cover is provided by sod-podburs, and the accompanying soils are gray metamorphic, light-humic and cryoarid soils. We identified a new type of soils, cespitose-gray soils. Psammozems and light-humic soils occur on sands. Chernozems prevail in the steppe zone, and cas tanozems, cryoarid and, light-humic soils are dominant in the arid steppe zone. It is determined that the floodplain develops soils of different types: immature, alluvial and halophytic. A study is made of the specific character of floodplain soil formation de termined by the mountains on the territory, the regional features of floodplain-alluvial processes, the extremely continental climate, and by the functioning of soils in conditions of the combined manifestation of cryodization and aridization. It is emphasized that the 1:5 000 000 soil map of the Lake Baikal drainage basin was created using a unified methodological framework and a uni fied classification by soil scientists of Russia and Mongolia. It is established that the soils of the Baikal region differ from the soils located at the same latitude of the European territory of Russia. It is found that the mountain zonality has a determining influence on the formation and spatial distribution of soils.